Core / Backbone Network and Technologies

Core network and backbone network typically refer to the high capacity communication facilities that connect primary nodes. Core/backbone network provides path for the exchange of information between different sub-networks. In the world of Enterprises, the term backbone is more used, while for Service Providers, the term core network is more used.
In the U.S. local exchange Core Networks are linked by several competing Interexchange networks; in the rest of the world (now) the Core Network extends to national boundaries.
Core/backbone network usually has a mesh topology that provides any-to-any connections among devices on the network. Many main service providers in the world have their own core/backbone networks, that are interconnected. Some large enterprises have their own core/backbone network, which are typically connected to the public networks.
The devices and facilities in the core / backbone networks are switches and routers. The trend is to push the intelligence and decision making into access and edge devices and keep the core devices dump and fast. As a result, switches are more and more often used in the core/backbone network facilities. The technologies used in the core and backbone facilities are data link layer and network layer technologies such as SONET, DWDM, ATM, IP, etc. For enterprise backbone network, gigabit Ethernet or 10 gigabit Ethernet technologies are also often used.

Network Protocols

The OSI model, and any other network communication models, provided only a conceptual framework for communication between computers, but the model itself does not provide specific methods of communication. Actual communication is defined by various communication protocols. In the context of data communication, a network protocol is a formal set of rules, conventions and data structure that governs how computers and other network devices exchange information over a network. In other words, protocol is a standard procedure and format that two data communication devices must understand, accept and use to be able to talk to each otherIn modern protocol design, network protocols are "layered" according to the OSI 7 layer model or similar layered models. Layering is a design principle which divides the protocol design into a number of smaller parts, each of accomplishes a particular sub-task, and interacts with the other parts of the protocol only in a small number of well-defined ways. Layering allows the parts of a protocol to be designed and tested without a combinatorial explosion of cases, keeping each design relatively simple. Layering also permits familiar protocols to be adapted to unusual circumstances.
The header or/and trailer at each layer is reflecting the structure of a protocol. Detailed rules and procedures are defined by a lengthy document. For example, IETF uses RFCs (Request For Comments) to define protocols and updates to the protocols.

A wide variety of network communication protocols exist, which are defined by many standard organizations worldwide and technology vendors over years of technology evolution and developments. One of the most popular protocol suites is TCP/IP , which is the heart of Internetworking communications. The IP, the Internet Protocol, is responsible for exchanging information between routers so that the routers can select the proper path for network traffic, while TCP is responsible to ensure the data packets are transmitted across the network reliably and error free. LAN and WAN protocols are also critical protocols in the network communications. LAN protocols suite is for the physical and data link layers communications over various LAN media such as Ethernet wires and wireless waves. WAN protocol suite is for the lowest three layers and defines communication over various wide-area media such as fiber optic and cable.
Network communication is an evolution process - today's new technologies are based on years accumulations of existing or obsolete technologies. Because of that, the protocols, which define the network communication, are highly inter-related. Many protocols rely on others for operation. For example, many routing protocols use other network protocols to exchange information between routers.
In addition to standards for individual protocols in transmission, there are now also interface standards for different layers to talk to the ones above or below (usually operating-system-specific). For example: Winsock and Berkeley sockets between layers 4 and 5, or NDIS and ODI between layers 2 and 3.
The network protocols for data communication cover all areas as defined in the OSI model. However, OSI model is only loosely defined, a protocol may perform the functions of one or more of the OSI layers, which introduces complexity of understanding protocols in relevant to OSI 7 layer models. In real-world protocols, there is some argument as to where the distinctions between layers are drawn; there is no one black and white answer.
To develop a complete technology that is useful for the industry, very often, a group of protocols are required in the same layer or across many different layers. Different protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication; taken together, these form a protocol suite. For example, Voice Over IP (VOIP) , a group of protocols developed by many vendors and standard organizations, has many protocols across 4 top layers in the OSI model.
Protocols can be implemented either in hardware or software, or a mixture of both. Typically, only the lower layers are implemented in hardware, with the higher layers being implemented in software.
Protocols could be grouped into suites (or families, or stacks) by their technical functions, or origin of the protocol introduction, or both. A protocol may belong to one or multiple protocol suites, depends how you categorize it. For example, the Gigabit Ethernet protocol IEEE 802.3z is a LAN (Local Area Network) protocol and it can also be used in MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) communications. The network protocol suite details are overviewed in a separate document (click). Most recent protocols are designed by the IETF for Internetworking communications, and the IEEE for local area networking (LAN) and metropolitan area networking (MAN). The ITU-T contributes mostly to the wide area networking (WAN) and telecommunications protocols. ISO has its own suite of protocols for internetworking communications which are mainly deployed in European countries. For more information of the standard organizations

PROTOCOL TESTING

In general, protocol testers work by capturing the information exchanged between a Device Under Test (DUT) and a reference device known to operate properly. In the example of a manufacturer producing a new keyboard for a personal computer, the Device Under Test would be the keyboard and the reference device, the PC. The information exchanged between the two devices is governed by rules set out in a technical specification called a "communication protocol". Both the nature of the communication and the actual data exchanged are defined by the specification. Since communication protocols are state-dependent (what should happen next depends on what previously happened), specifications are complex and the documents describing them can be hundreds of pages.
The captured information is decoded from raw digital form into a human-readable format that permits users of the protocol tester to easily review the exchanged information. Protocol testers vary in their abilities to display data in multiple views, automatically detect errors, determine the root causes of errors, generate timing diagrams, etc.
Some protocol testers can also generate traffic and thus act as the reference device. Such testers generate protocol-correct traffic for functional testing, and may also have the ability to deliberately introduce errors to test for the DUT's ability to deal with error conditions.
Protocol testing is an essential step towards commercialization of standards-based products. It helps to ensure that products from different manufacturers will operate together properly ("interoperate") and so satisfy customer expectations.

Network Management Architecture and Technologies Map

A comprehensive network management guide and reference for Telecom, IT and networking professionals.
An easy to use training tool for IT students to get an overall picture of network management architecture, frameworks, models, protocols and technologies.
All in one chart displays all the technologies of the network management for data networking and telecommunications, such as Telecommunication management network (TMN model), FCAPS, eTOM, FAB, BSS/OSS, OAM&P, SNMP/RMON, AAA, IPFIX/NetFlow, CMIP/CMIS and more.
Popular network management tools for status monitoring, traffic monitoring, device monitoring and troubleshooting.
Designed by experts with decades of experience in the network technology creations and daily management.
Large (27 in x 39 in) and high quality poster for offices, labs, class rooms and homes.
This network management map is designed for people who are using, operating, managing, and learning networks, including telecommunication engineers and operators, IT and networking engineers, the network admins, and networking technology educators and students.
Many networking hardware, software and service providers use it as a marketing or sales tool in trade shows, seminars and web/email lead generation programs. Computer and IT training organizations use it as a supplementary educational tool or a motivational gift for students and trainees.

Operating system

An operating system (OS) is an interface between hardware and user which is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of a computer that acts as a host for computing applications run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the hardware. This relieves application programs from having to manage these details and makes it easier to write applications. Almost all computers (including handheld computers, desktop computers, supercomputers, video game consoles) as well as some robots, domestic appliances (dishwashers, washing machines), and portable media players use an operating system of some type.[1] Some of the oldest models may, however, use an embedded operating system that may be contained on a data storage device.
Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs and users. Applications access these services through application programming interfaces (APIs) or system calls. By invoking these interfaces, the application can request a service from the operating system, pass parameters, and receive the results of the operation. Users may also interact with the operating system with some kind of software user interface like typing commands by using command line interface (CLI) or using a graphical user interface (GUI, commonly pronounced “gooey”). For hand-held and desktop computers, the user interface is generally considered part of the operating system. On large multi-user systems like Unix and Unix-like systems, the user interface is generally implemented as an application program that runs outside the operating system. (Whether the user interface should be included as part of the operating system is a point of contention.)
While the most common operating systems are now found in cellphones and automobiles, other contemporary operating systems include BSD, Darwin (Mac OS X), Linux, SunOS (Solaris/OpenSolaris), and Windows NT (XP/Vista/7). While servers generally run Unix or some Unix-like operating system, embedded system markets are split amongst several operating systems,[2][3] although the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems has almost 90% of the client PC market.

Example: Microsoft Windows
While the Windows 9x series offered the option of having profiles for multiple users, they had no concept of access privileges, and did not allow concurrent access; and so were not true multi-user operating systems. In addition, they implemented only partial memory protection. They were accordingly widely criticised for lack of security.
The Windows NT series of operating systems, by contrast, are true multi-user, and implement absolute memory protection. However, a lot of the advantages of being a true multi-user operating system were nullified by the fact that, prior to Windows Vista, the first user account created during the setup process was an administrator account, which was also the default for new accounts. Though Windows XP did have limited accounts, the majority of home users did not change to an account type with fewer rights – partially due to the number of programs which unnecessarily required administrator rights – and so most home users ran as administrator all the time.
Windows Vista changes this[5] by introducing a privilege elevation system called User Account Control. When logging in as a standard user, a logon session is created and a token containing only the most basic privileges is assigned. In this way, the new logon session is incapable of making changes that would affect the entire system. When logging in as a user in the Administrators group, two separate tokens are assigned. The first token contains all privileges typically awarded to an administrator, and the second is a restricted token similar to what a standard user would receive. User applications, including the Windows Shell, are then started with the restricted token, resulting in a reduced privilege environment even under an Administrator account. When an application requests higher privileges or "Run as administrator" is clicked, UAC will prompt for confirmation and, if consent is given (including administrator credentials if the account requesting the elevation is not a member of the administrators group), start the process using the unrestricted token.[6]
[edit] Example: Linux
Linux (and Unix) have a multi-tier security that permits user root any system-wide changes. Regular users can be limited: where they can save files, what hardware they can access, their memory usage, applications, disk usage (quota), and the range of priority settings they can apply, can all be specified. This still provides the user with plenty of. Should a user have to install software outside of his home directory or make system-wide changes, they must become root. (See su or sudo). There are also group accounts management, and file and directory permissions.
Linux security software examples include for:
Authentication modules, PAM and OPIE;
System logging, Syslog;
Network services, TCP wrappers, port mappers, and xinetd;
The shell, ssh.
Security auditing, Crack, Tiger and Tripwire;
Cryptographic software, TCFS;
Packet filtering, ipchains.
Most Linux software applications are open standard and open source. For example any application may extend it's own authentication, configuration and logging over to PAM or Syslog.
For more information on the differences between the Linux su/sudo approach and Vista's User Account Control, see Comparison of privilege authorization features.
[edit] File system support in modern operating systems
Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems although there are several common file systems which almost all operating systems include support and drivers for.
[edit] Mac OS X
Mac OS X supports HFS+ with journaling as its primary file system. It is derived from the Hierarchical File System of the earlier Mac OS. Mac OS X has facilities to read and write FAT, NTFS (read-only, although an open-source cross platform implementation known as NTFS 3G provides read-write support to Microsoft Windows NTFS file system for Mac OS X users), UDF, and other file systems, but cannot be installed to them. Due to its UNIX heritage Mac OS X now supports virtually all the file systems supported by the UNIX VFS..
[edit] Solaris
The Solaris Operating System uses UFS as its primary file system. Prior to 1998, Solaris UFS did not have logging/journaling capabilities, but over time the OS has gained this and other new data management capabilities.
Additional features include Veritas (Journaling) VxFS, QFS from Sun Microsystems, enhancements to UFS including multiterabyte support and UFS volume management included as part of the OS, and ZFS (open source, poolable, 128-bit, compressible, and error-correcting).
Kernel extensions were added to Solaris to allow for bootable Veritas VxFS operation. Logging or journaling was added to UFS in Solaris 7. Releases of Solaris 10, Solaris Express, OpenSolaris, and other open source variants of Solaris later supported bootable ZFS.
Logical Volume Management allows for spanning a file system across multiple devices for the purpose of adding redundancy, capacity, and/or throughput. Solaris includes Solaris Volume Manager (formerly known as Solstice DiskSuite.) Solaris is one of many operating systems supported by Veritas Volume Manager. Modern Solaris based operating systems eclipse the need for volume management through leveraging virtual storage pools in ZFS.
[edit] Linux
Many Linux distributions support some or all of ext2, ext3, ext4, ReiserFS, Reiser4, JFS , XFS , GFS, GFS2, OCFS, OCFS2, and NILFS. The ext file systems, namely ext2, ext3 and ext4 are based on the original Linux file system. Others have been developed by companies to meet their specific needs, hobbyists, or adapted from UNIX, Microsoft Windows, and other operating systems. Linux has full support for XFS and JFS, along with FAT (the MS-DOS file system), and HFS which is the primary file system for the Macintosh.
In recent years support for Microsoft Windows NT's NTFS file system has appeared in Linux, and is now comparable to the support available for other native UNIX file systems. ISO 9660 and Universal Disk Format (UDF) are supported which are standard file systems used on CDs, DVDs, and BluRay discs. It is possible to install Linux on the majority of these file systems. Unlike other operating systems, Linux and UNIX allow any file system to be used regardless of the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard drive, a disc (CD,DVD...), an USB key, or even contained within a file located on another file system.
[edit] Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows currently supports NTFS and FAT file systems, along with network file systems shared from other computers, and the ISO 9660 and UDF filesystems used for CDs, DVDs, and other optical discs such as Blu-ray. Under Windows each file system is usually limited in application to certain media, for example CDs must use ISO 9660 or UDF, and as of Windows Vista, NTFS is the only file system which the operating system can be installed on. Windows Embedded CE 6.0, Windows Vista Service Pack 1, and Windows Server 2008 support ExFAT, a file system more suitable for flash drives.

Wireless Communications Technology Map

A comprehensive wireless communication technology guide for network and telecom professionals.
An easy to use training reference for telecom and wireless technology students to get an overall picture of WLAN, WPAN, WMAN, WWAN and Mobile technologies.
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Protocol stack details of Wireless LAN, WiMAX, Bluetooth, ZigBee, UWB and mobile wireless.
Graphic illustration in diagrams and evolution tree of mobile wireless technologies from 1 G to 4G for both GSM/GPRS/WCDMA and cdmaOne/CDMA2000.
Comprehensive reference architecture framework to show all wireless technologies in one chart for quick understanding of the big picture.
Designed by experts with decades of experience in wireless, data and tele- communication industries.
Designed for wireless communication engineers and marketers, wireless communication technology educators and students, this wireless communications technology map covers all major wireless technologies: Wireless LAN (WLAN), WiMAX for metropolitan area networking (WMAN), Bluetooth, ZigBee and UWB for personal area networking (WPAN) and mobile wireless technologies (WWAN) from 1G to 3G.
Wireless hardware, software and service vendors may purchase it as a marketing or sales tool in trade shows, seminars and web/email leads generation programs. Networking and telecom IT training organizations can use it as a supplementary educational tool or a motivational gift for students and trainees.

Java Technology

Java technology's versatility, efficiency, platform portability, and security make it the ideal technology for network computing. From laptops to datacenters, game consoles to scientific supercomputers, cell phones to the Internet, Java is everywhere!
Java powers more than 4.5 billion devices including:
800+ million PCs
2.1 billion mobile phones and other handheld devices (source: Ovum)
3.5 billion smart cards
Set-top boxes, printers, Web cams, games, car navigation systems, lottery terminals, medical devices, parking payment stations, and more.

Why Software Developers Choose Java
Java has been tested, refined, extended, and proven by a dedicated community. And numbering more than 6.5 million developers, it's the largest and most active on the planet. With its versatilty, efficiency, and portability, Java has become invaluable to developers by enabling them to:
Write software on one platform and run it on virtually any other platform
Create programs to run within a Web browser and Web services
Develop server-side applications for online forums, stores, polls, HTML forms processing, and more
Combine applications or services using the Java language to create highly customized applications or services
Write powerful and efficient applications for mobile phones, remote processors, low-cost consumer products, and practically any other device with a digital heartbeat

Some Ways Software Developers Learn Java
Today, many colleges and universities offer courses in programming for the Java platform. In addition, developers can also enhance their Java programming skills by reading Sun's java.sun.com Web site, subscribing to Java technology-focused newsletters, using the Java Tutorial and the New to Java Programming Center, and signing up for Web, virtual, or instructor-led courses.

• What Is JavaFX

JavaFX extends your web experience by delivering rich media and content across all the screens of your life. As users, you will be able to run JavaFX applications in a browser or drag and drop them onto the desktop. It's a seamless interface!
JavaFX is powered by Java: JavaFX extends the power of Java by allowing developers to use any Java library within JavaFX applications. This way developers can expand their capabilities in Java and make use of the revolutionary presentation technology that JavaFX provides to build engaging visual experiences.
Highlights of JavaFX:
Allows users to view JavaFX applications in a browser or break free of the browser by dragging and dropping the same application onto the desktop
Enables an efficient designer-to-developer workflow with Project Nile: designers can work in their tools of choice while collaborating with Web scripters who use the NetBeans IDE with JavaFX
Extends Java technology by enabling use of any Java library within a JavaFX application
Allows developers to integrate vector graphics, animation, audio, and video Web assets into a rich, interactive, immersive application
To learn more about JavaFX technology, visit javafx.com or java.sun.com/javafx web sites for more information.

Wireless Information Technology

First-generation wireless mobile communication systems, introduced in the early 1980s, and second-generation (2G) systems, fielded in the late 1980s, were intended primarily for voice transmission. Third-generation (3G) systems, to be introduced in the early 2000s, will offer considerably higher data rates and allow significantly increased flexibility over 2G systems. A feature of 3G wireless mobile systems will be to provide this wide variety of services ranging from voice and paging services to interactive multimedia, including teleconferencing and Internet access through a coordinated or transparent system concept — by fixed wireline where that is most efficient, by terrestrial wireless where required, and even by satellite wireless when necessary. The currently proposed 3G systems will, for the most part, not achieve this coordinated system vision or Global seamless roaming, leaving these as goals for fourth generation (4G) and beyond.
Projection beyond 3G wireless mobile systems naturally leads to the consideration of yet wider bandwidths and higher data rates. However, higher data rates will not necessarily provide additional overall capacity for a number of reasons. First, it is by no means clear how system resources should be managed to accommodate the wide mix of traffic types anticipated. Second, power limitations preclude high data rates over geographically large areas, and a hierarchy of cell structures or ad hoc wireless networks to accommodate those users desiring high data-rate services will be necessary. Third, because of the variability of wideband channels and the need to realize the maximum inherent diversity possible, joint adaptivity across several hierarchical layers is necessary, and an integrated research approach is important to resolve the technical tradeoffs. Fourth, in contrast to purely wireline networks, scalability, or the ability to handle increasing numbers of users and diversity of services, is more challenging with mobile networks. A scalable information infrastructure is clearly essential in any future interconnected information system.2
It appears reasonable to expect an extension of the capacity of 3G wireless systems by at least an order of magnitude with 4G systems and beyond.3 The focus of this initiative is to address fundamental research issues, which are critical to these future generation wireless systems. Several attendant benefits and applications of this increased capacity are outlined below.
Potential Applications of 4G Wireless Mobile Systems
Advanced features of wireless mobile systems, including data rates compatible with multimedia applications, global roaming capability, and coordination with other network structures, will enable applications not possible with current and previous wireless mobile systems such as:
(a) Virtual navigation: A remote database contains the graphical representation of streets, buildings, and physical characteristics of a large metropolis. Blocks of this database are transmitted in rapid sequence to a vehicle, where a rendering program permits the occupants to visualize the environment ahead. They may also "virtually" see the internal layout of buildings to plan an emergency rescue, or to plan visits to possible points of interest.
(b) Tele-medicine: The paramedic assisting the victim of a traffic accident in a remote location must access medical records (e.g., x-rays) and may need video conference assistance from a surgeon for an emergency intervention. In fact, the paramedic may need to relay back to the hospital the victim's x-rays taken locally.
(c) Tele-geoprocessing applications: The combination of geographical information systems (GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), and high-capacity wireless mobile systems will enable a new type of application referred to as tele-geoprocessing. Queries dependent on location information of several users, in addition to temporal aspects have many applications.
(d) Crisis-management applications: These arise, for example, as a result of natural disasters where the entire communications infrastructure is in disarray. Restoring communications quickly is essential. With wideband wireless mobile communications, limited and even total communications capability, including internet and video services, could be set up in hours instead of days or even weeks required for restoration of wireline communications.
(e) Education via the internet: educational opportunities available on the internet, both for K-12 pupils and individuals interested in life-long education, will be unavailable to clientele living in thinly populated or remote areas because of the economic unfeasibility of providing wideband wireline internet access in these areas. Wideband wireless communications provides a cost-effective alternative in these situations.
These areas illustrate applications for wideband mobile communications systems. Proposers are encouraged to suggest their own applications while still keeping the emphasis on basic multidisciplinary integrative research.